The Fluidity of Designing .
Gender Norms & Racial Bias in the Study of the Modern "Designing "
A design is a plan or specification for the construction of an object or system or for the implementation of an activity or process, or the result of that plan or specification in the form of a prototype, product or process. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design activity. The design usually has to satisfy certain goals and constraints; may take into account aesthetic, functional, economic, or socio-political considerations; and is expected to interact with a certain environment. Typical examples of designs include architectural blueprints, engineering drawings, business processes, circuit diagrams, and sewing patterns.
People who produce designs are called designers. The term "designer" generally refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. The word is generally qualified by the area involved, but can also designate others such as architects and engineers. A designer's sequence of activities is called a design process, possibly using design methods. The process of creating a design can be brief or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling, interactive adjustment and re-design.
Process
Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Kees Dorst and Judith Dijkhuis, both designers themselves, argued that "there are many ways of describing design processes" and discussed "two basic and fundamentally different ways", both of which have several names. The prevailing view has been called "the rational model", an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz. It posits that:
# Designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints and objectives.
# The design process is plan-driven.
# The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages.
The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner.
Example sequence of stages
Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following:
Pre-production design
Design brief or Parti pris – an early statement of design goals
Analysis – analysis of current design goals
Research – investigating similar design solutions in the field or related topics
Specification – specifying requirements of a design solution for a product or service.
Problem-solving – conceptualizing and documenting design solutions
Presentation – presenting design solutions
Design during production
Development – continuation and improvement of a designed solution
Testing – in situ testing of a designed solution
Post-production design feedback for future designs
Implementation – introducing the designed solution into the environment
Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements
Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated at any time before, during, or after production.
Each stage has many associated best practices.
Criticism of the rational model
The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds:
# Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests.
Action-centric model
The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model. which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication, the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas.
Philosophies
Philosophy of design is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also countless informal or personal philosophies for guiding design as design values and its accompanying aspects within modern design vary, both between different schools of thought and among practicing designers. Design philosophies are usually for determining design goals. In this sense, design philosophies are fundamental guiding principles that dictate how a designer approaches his/her practice. For example, reflections on material culture and environmental concerns can guide a design philosophy.
Approaches to design
A design approach is a general philosophy that may or may not include a guide for specific methods. Some are to guide the overall goal of the design. Other approaches are to guide the tendencies of the designer.
Some of these approaches include:
Critical design uses designed artifacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture.
Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle.
Participatory Design is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable.
Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge. Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design of face masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance, thermal comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance.
Service design designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use.
Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work and the needs of society
Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living.
User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end user of the designed artifact.
Types
Design can broadly be applied to various fields such as art, engineering and production.
Today, the term design is generally used for what was formerly called the applied arts. The new term, for a very old thing, was perhaps initiated by Raymond Loewy and teachings at the Bauhaus and Ulm School of Design in Germany during the 20th century.
The boundaries between art and design are blurred, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts, the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded.
Some methods for creating work, such as employing intuition, are shared across the disciplines within the applied arts and fine art. Mark Getlein, writer, suggests the principles of design are "almost instinctive", "built-in", "natural", and part of "our sense of 'rightness'." However, the intended application and context of the resulting works will vary greatly.
Engineering
In engineering, design is a component of the process. Many overlapping methods and processes can be seen when comparing product design, industrial design and engineering. The American Heritage Dictionary defines design as: "To conceive or fashion in the mind; invent," and "To formulate a plan", and defines engineering as: "The application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems.". Both are forms of problem-solving with a defined distinction being the application of "scientific and mathematical principles". The increasingly scientific focus of engineering in practice, however, has raised the importance of more new "human-centered" fields of design.
Design disciplines
See also
Design-based learning
Design methods
Design research
Design science
Design theory
Design thinking
Design prototyping
Evidence-based design
Visual design elements and principles
List of design awards
Design museums
References
Bibliography
Bibliography:
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